Grammar and Usage
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Grammar
For a full discussion of grammar, including the definitions, properties, and uses of all parts of speech, see The Chicago Manual of Style, chapter 5. The section on word usage includes a glossary of troublesome expressions, and a discussion of bias-free language. The section on prepositions includes a list of prepositional idioms (appropriate prepositions to use with particular nouns, verbs, and adjectives, depending on context).
bias-free language: Per
layperson, not layman
chair, not chairman or chairwoman
firefighter, not fireman
actor, not actress
businessperson, not businessman
France … its people (not her people)
SS Titanic … its crew (not her crew)
dangling modifier: An expression is said to "dangle" when it appears to modify a word that it does not logically modify. Usually a dangling expression is at the beginning of a sentence and consists of an adjective, a participle, or a participial construction.
Faulty: Jailed for six years, this book is an account of a political activist's struggle ...
Better: Jailed for six years, a political activist presents an account of his struggle ...
Still Better: This book is an account of the struggle of a political activist, who was jailed for six years ...
Faulty: Filling a gap in East European studies, scholars will welcome this authoritative book.
Better: Scholars will welcome this authoritative book, which fills a gap in East European studies.
split infinitives: Infinitives are said to be split when "to" and the verb are separated, typically by an adverb. This notion is derived from a faulty analogy with Latin grammar. In fact it is sometimes not only acceptable but necessary to place an adverb between “to” and the actual verb for the sake of clarity. Notice the difference in meaning in the following sentences:
He failed fully to take care of his friend’s animals. (He completely neglected them.)
He failed to fully take care of his friend’s animals. (He fed them but did not change the litter.)
Troublesome words and expressions
a / an, o / oh: Use the indefinite article a before a word beginning with a consonant sound, including the aspirate h. Use the indefinite article an before a word beginning with a vowel sound, including the silent h
Correct: a historic, a historical
Incorrect: an historic, an historical
Correct: a usual occurrence
Correct: an honest opinion, an honored guest
all right, not alright
afterward = later
afterword = an epilogue
among/between: Though "between" is etymologically linked to the meaning "two" and must be used when two and only two things are referred to, the primary distinction between "between" and "among" is one of relationship. Use "between" when one thing is related to another, regardless of the total number of entities involved:
Negotiations took place between
Use "among" when a relationship involving more than two things is vague or distributive:
She divided the toys among the three children.
Stokowski was unique among conductors.
For an excellent history and discussion of the "between/among" problem, see Webster's Dictionary of English Usage, pp. 179–81.
as much as, if not more than, … : Two separate relationships or comparisons are involved here, and each must be expressed by the complete appropriate phrase.
Correct: as much as, if not more than, 30,000 gallons of oil
Incorrect: as much if not more than 30,000 gallons of oil
at the present time, at this time, at present: Instead use now, today, currently.
both ... as well as: An incorrect, hybrid expression that should not be used.
Correct: The author both describes the strike and analyzes the labor legislation.
Correct: The author describes the strike as well as analyzes the labor legislation.
Better: The author describes the strike and analyzes the labor legislation.
Incorrect: The author both describes the strike as well as analyzes the labor legislation that followed.
Correct: The glossary contains both commonplace and arcane expressions.
Incorrect: The glossary contains both commonplace as well as arcane expressions.
breadth (not breath or breathe) = comprehensive quality, scope, liberality of views or taste
compared to / compared with: Compared to suggests (sometimes metaphorically) that two or more items are similar. Per
She compared her work in politics to other grassroots campaigns.
His punch was compared to the kick of a mule.
Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?
Compared with suggests both similarities and differences; it appraises or measures the first element in relation to the second, often in a sense of contrast.
Smith's book has three appendixes, compared with nine in Dailey's.
The subway system of
Note: Use compared to when likened to would make sense. Use compared with when contrasted with would make sense.
compose / comprise: Compose means make up or constitute; it indicates how the components relate to the whole.
Fifty paintings compose the collection.
Comprise means contain, include, encompass, or be made up of; it signifies how a whole relates to its component parts.
The collection comprises 50 paintings.
This series comprises 32 volumes.
Because compose can be used passively, it can be used in place of comprise.
Correct: The junior high school comprises grades seven, eight, and nine.
Correct: The junior high school is composed of grades seven, eight, and nine.
Incorrect: Grades seven, eight, and nine comprise the junior high school.
datum (sing.), data (pl.): As much as possible, avoid using data when information, figures, or statistics would serve just as well. When data is used as a subject, it requires a plural verb.
The information is interestingly presented.
The author's data tend to support the earlier studies.
Occasionally, data may be used to denote a unit; in such cases, a singular verb would not be inappropriate.
The data is sound.
different from / different than: The preferred
fewer / less: In general, use fewer for countable individual items, less for bulk, quantity, or amount.
Correct: The book was less than three years old when a new edition was published.
Incorrect: The book was fewer than three years old when a new edition was published.
Correct: The CD-ROM costs less than thirty dollars.
Incorrect: The CD-ROM costs fewer than thirty dollars.
forego = go before, precede
forgo = abstain from
impact: Writers tend to overuse or misuse this word, either as a noun or as a verb. Often affect (the verb), effect (the noun), or influence (as noun or verb) is not only adequate but preferable.
that / which: Use that if the clause following it is restrictive--i.e., essential for the unambiguous meaning of the sentence. Use which if the clause following it is nonrestrictive--i.e., could be eliminated without changing the essential meaning of the sentence. Nonrestrictive clauses should be set off by commas.
(See also "Comma.")
while: The use of while as a substitute for although is universal; it is also commonly used as a synonym for whereas and and. All three of these substitutions are acceptable, provided that the use of while does not result in a sentence that is ambiguous or absurd.
The cannon will be based on Okinawa while the rockets are being sent to
One brother was born June 9, 1898, while the other was born July 19, 1893, at